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Efforts to reduce emissions through the adoption of renewable energy have revealed new vulnerabilities in energy security. As countries shift away from oil-driven conflicts, they are becoming enmeshed in the geopolitics of critical minerals, trading one form of dependence for another.

Talks of the FTA stalled in the past over disagreements regarding palm oil and Indonesia’s export ban on raw nickel. In previous discussions, growing concern over deforestation and environmental degradation linked to palm oil has significantly strained relations between the two powers.